Development of Prosocial Behavior and Its Cultivation in Schools

As the population continues to decline, securing people to carry out social roles is becoming an issue in local communities. One theory suggests the potential of schools as an environment for fostering prosocial behavior that seeks to benefit others

• Dilution of mutual aid and reciprocity in local communities
• Prosocial behavior is behavior intended to benefit others
• Prosocial motivation and adolescence
• The importance of receiving evaluation and approval from others for prosocial behavior
• Implications from parenting style research
• The Possibility of an "Ethical Learning Community"
• Points to note when introducing "ethical learning communities" in Japan

Dilution of mutual aid and reciprocity in local communities

In today's world, where the birthrate is declining, the population is aging, and there is no prospect of a significant expansion of public welfare, attention is being focused on mutual support between residents in local communities. The importance of social capital is increasingly being emphasized as a way to encourage mutual support between residents. Social capital is a concept that is often defined as the connections between people that consist of three elements: trust, networks, and the norm of reciprocity. Of these, reciprocity refers to the establishment of relationships of mutual assistance, mutual support, and give-and-take, and can be said to be an element that directly influences mutual support within a community

Source: Compiled by the author

However, it's possible that interactions between local residents have been weakening in recent years. According to the Cabinet Office's "Public Opinion Survey on Social Awareness," the percentage of people who answered "Yes" ("Often" + "Somewhat") to the question, "To what extent do you interact with your local community?" rose from 56.6% in 2021 to 52.9% in 2023 (although a direct comparison is not possible due to different survey methods, the percentage in 2002 was 69.5%).

Additionally, a trend toward weakening is also evident in the question, "To what extent do you think local interactions are desirable?" The percentage of people who selected the option "Participating in local events and meetings, and helping each other out in times of need" rose from 32.2% in 2021 to 29.8% in 2023. Similarly, the percentage of people who chose "Participating in local events and meetings" rose from 28.8% in 2021 to 27.2% in 2023. Conversely, the percentage of people who "only have local relationships, such as exchanging greetings," rose from 17.8% to 21.1%, indicating that more people are looking for shallow or formal relationships.

Prosocial behavior is behavior intended to benefit others

It is necessary to explore ways to increase mutual aid and reciprocity in the community, and prosocial behavior, or prosociality, is an important concept.

Prosocial behavior refers to actions intended to benefit others, while prosociality refers to a person's tendency to perform prosocial actions. Prosocial behavior encompasses the concepts of altruistic behavior, in which one helps others purely out of consideration for them without expecting anything in return, and helping behavior, which includes helping others for the purpose of receiving external rewards or avoiding exclusion from others.

Source: Compiled by the author

Prosocial behavior is an altruistic behavior that contributes to the formation and maintenance of human relationships. Areas with a high proportion of people engaging in prosocial behavior tend to foster stronger connections. Conversely, areas with abundant connections encourage even more prosocial behavior (Uchida 2020). In terms of local community relationships, prosocial behavior can be seen as supporting others both within and outside the community, proactively initiating initiatives (related to community management), and contributing to the community (ibid.).

Numerous studies have shown that prosocial behavior contributes to improving the performer's sense of well-being. For example, Helliwell et al. (2017) used survey data from 30,000 people in the United States to show that those who volunteered had higher levels of happiness. Furthermore, Moynihan et al. (2015) found that engaging in work with prosocial motivation and seeing the results of their efforts was associated with higher well-being.

Thus, prosocial behavior benefits both the performer and the recipient, and cultivating the qualities necessary to engage in prosocial behavior is highly significant.

Prosocial motivation and adolescence

Prosocial motivation (prosocial motivation) is thought to be divided into autonomous (intrinsic) and controlled (extrinsic) motivation. The more controlled motivation, the lower an individual's subjective sense of well-being and self-esteem.

The differences in the impact of these types of motivation become important as children enter adolescence. Adolescence is considered the stage between childhood and adulthood, beginning around the age of 10. During this period, children begin to relativize and question the values ​​and norms that have been passed down from generation to generation by their parents as part of socialization (e.g., Oyama 2019). They then begin to internalize values ​​and norms that they deem good after careful consideration, gradually forming their own identities.

Because prosocial behavior reflects the value of social desirability, it is also subject to scrutiny during adolescence. Research on the frequency of prosocial behavior has shown that, globally, there is a period in early adolescence when the frequency of prosocial behavior declines (Yamamoto 2022). Yamamoto (2022) argues that prosocial behavior in childhood is accompanied by a sense of control from parents and other adults around oneself, and that this is because prosocial behavior based on regulatory motivation declines during the process of self-formation. Furthermore, he argues that this decline in the frequency of prosocial behavior is developmentally typical, occurring during the transition to autonomous motivation (Yamamoto 2022). However,

the transition from regulatory motivation to autonomous motivation in prosocial behavior is not a one-step process. Eisenberg et al., leading researchers in prosocial behavior research, have classified developmental changes in prosocial motivation into six stages (quoted from Yamamoto (2022)): (1) "hedonistic/self-focused orientation," (2) "other-needs-oriented," (3) "acceptance, interpersonal relationship-oriented, and stereotype-oriented," (4) "empathy-oriented," (5) "transition from empathy-oriented to internalization," and (6) "strongly internalized" (see table for details).

Source: Created by the author based on the description in Yamamoto (2022)

According to this classification, motivation shifts from self-centered motivation to motivation that takes into consideration the existence of others, gradually reaching motivation based on internalized values. In Eisenberg's classification, many adolescents are at stages (3) or (4), that is, motivation based on the approval and empathy of others. This is consistent with Ito (2012), who states that the emergence of prosocial behavior changes from a stage influenced solely by values ​​to a stage influenced by both values ​​and efficacy (confidence in being able to behave prosocially)

The importance of receiving evaluation and approval from others for prosocial behavior

Given these characteristics of adolescence, fostering prosocial behavior in an environment where prosocial behavior is valued and approved is important. Tashjian et al. (2021) conducted a study of adolescents with an average age of 16 years and found that adolescents who have peer relationships that value their prosocial behavior are more likely to experience psychological rewards due to the positive feedback they receive from their peers. In contrast, adolescents who experience less appreciation for their prosocial behavior did not find a relationship between prosocial behavior and well-being (Tashjian et al., 2021). This suggests that peer recognition and approval of prosocial behavior motivates further prosocial behavior. Furthermore, Ozeki et al. (2008) investigated the impact of local relationships and culture on the prosocial behavior of junior high school students and found results supporting the finding that seeing adults more cooperative increases children's prosocial behavior

Implications from parenting style research

Research on the relationship between parenting styles and children's prosocial motivation suggests that internalization of prosocial values ​​is promoted when children are listened to and presented with them.

Karmakar (2017), who conducted a questionnaire survey of 610 adolescents aged 16 to 18, found that when parents have an authoritarian style that combines warmth, compassion, and care with the demands of healthy development, children are more likely to engage in prosocial behaviors driven by intrinsic motivation. Conversely, when parents have an authoritarian (dictatorial) style that is less compassionate and more expansive in its prohibitions and instructions, children are more likely to engage in prosocial behaviors driven by extrinsic motivation (Karmakar 2017). According to Karmakar (2017), children with authoritarian parents feel safe and secure through "gentle discipline" and a "reciprocal, responsive parent-child relationship," which allows them to internalize conscientious behaviors.

In summary, fostering prosocial behavior requires an environment where prosocial behaviors are valued and where prosocial values ​​are presented in a reciprocal relationship.

Source: Compiled by the author

Schools are a strong candidate for a place to prepare such an environment. Kaname (2019) presents data showing that people who grew up in families and communities rich in social capital tend to have a stronger sense of reciprocity and sharing of local resources, even if they later move to areas with less social capital. Therefore, even experiences in the limited group and space of school can have a positive impact on children's sense of reciprocity and, ultimately, their prosocial behavior

The Possibility of an "Ethical Learning Community"

In the United States, the concept of "ethical learning communities" has been developed, which aims to foster the integrated development of excellence in intellectual development and goodness in moral maturity in schools (Licona and Davidson 2012). Ethical learning communities involve teachers, students, parents, and the local community working together to make the school the best it can be.

According to Licona and Davidson (2012), schools that have formed ethical learning communities practice the following six principles:

1) Maintaining a shared purpose and identity: The promotion of excellence and goodness is the foundation of the school's educational purpose, identity, and sense of belonging.

2) Linking various practices with expected outcomes and related research: Examining how existing practices are linked to the integration of excellence and goodness, that is, performance character and moral character.

3) Speaking up and demonstrating: Creating a democratic community that participates as much as possible in the pursuit of excellence and goodness. To this end, teachers, students, and parents are encouraged to speak up honestly and courageously.

4. Taking personal responsibility for continuous self-development: seeing oneself as a work in progress and doing one's best.

5. Taking collective responsibility for excellence and goodness: caring enough to help others be their best. Incorporating the model of care frontalization into relationships.

6. Tackling difficult challenges: tackling challenges that are often overlooked in and outside of school and that affect excellence and goodness.

Source: Compiled by the author

In relation to prosocial behavior, the following three elements are particularly relevant: (1) having a shared purpose, (3) speaking up and demonstrating, and (5) being considerate toward others so that they can do their best. (1) Having the shared purpose of fostering prosocial behavior leads to a shared message that prosocial behavior is valued. (3) Speaking up and demonstrating gives children the opportunity to speak out and take action on matters that affect them, leading to the formation of a community through two-way interaction. (5) Striving to do others their best increases the psychological rewards of participants by encouraging each other to specifically engage in prosocial behavior and positively recognizing each other. These psychological rewards are known to motivate subsequent prosocial behavior and are important factors in internalizing the idea that prosocial behavior is valued.

As can be seen, ethical learning communities are a suitable environment for children to internalize prosocial behavior.

Points to note when introducing "ethical learning communities"

However, because the concept of ethical learning communities was proposed in the United States and is based on American culture and ways of thinking, there are several points to keep in mind when implementing

it in Japan. First, to foster collective responsibility for excellence, Licona and Davidson (2012) suggest that students should be considerate yet clear in pointing out their peers who are not doing their best. In Japanese culture, speaking frankly may pose a significant psychological hurdle, and separate strategies must be developed to encourage mutual awareness in a culture that emphasizes the collective.

Second, while ethical learning communities call for students to make the best efforts to pursue excellence and goodness, it is important to keep in mind that this is only one goal and is not necessarily required of all children. Due to various circumstances, such as their family environment, some children lack a sense of psychological security. For such children, the goal is to help them achieve a sense of security and a sense of belonging. Such a multi-stage process must be anticipated.

Third, to realize an ethical learning community, it is important to treat teachers and staff members the same as children. In other words, it is necessary to provide opportunities for people to speak out about their own lives and work, and to build a sense of collegiality in which mutual help and praise is valued. This is also one of the main challenges facing current work style reform for teachers.

If these challenges can be overcome, it is worth considering realizing an ethical learning community in Japan as well.

(This article was originally published in the November 2024 issue of EN-ICHI FORUM, with additional revisions.)

References

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