Development of Prosocial Behavior and Its Cultivation in Schools

Amid ongoing population decline, securing people who can sustain community life has become a pressing challenge. There is a body of theory suggesting that schools can provide a fertile environment for cultivating prosocial behavior—actions intended to benefit others.

• Dilution of Mutual Aid and Reciprocity in Local Communities
• Prosocial Behavior is Behavior Intended to Benefit Others
• Prosocial Motivation and Adolescence
• The Importance of Receiving Evaluation and Approval from Others for Prosocial Behavior
• Implications from Parenting-Style Research
• The Promise of “Ethical Learning Communities”
• Points to Note When Introducing "Ethical Learning Communities" in Japan

The Thinning of Mutual Aid and Reciprocity in Local Communities

With low birthrates and population aging advancing, and with little prospect of major expansion in public welfare, attention has turned to mutual support among residents. In that context, the importance of social capital—often defined as the triad of trust, networks, and norms of reciprocity—is increasingly emphasized. Of these, reciprocity refers to relationships of mutual aid—it’s our turn today, yours tomorrow; give-and-take—and is a factor that can directly shape community support.

Source: Compiled by the author

In recent years, however, ties among local residents may be growing weaker. According to the Cabinet Office’s "Public Opinion Survey on Social Awareness"(内閣府「社会意識に関する世論調査」), in response to “How involved are you in your local community?”, the share answering “involved” (“very involved” + “somewhat involved”) was 56.6% in 2021, but 52.9% in 2023 (methods differ across years, so simple comparison is not possible; for reference, the 2002 figure was 69.5%).

A similar thinning appears in responses to “What level of local involvement do you think is desirable?” The share choosing “participate in community events/meetings and help each other in times of need” was 32.2% in 2021 and 29.8% in 2023. Likewise, “participate in community events/meetings” fell from 28.8% to 27.2%. Conversely, the share preferring “just greet neighbors” rose from 17.8% to 21.1%, suggesting a growing preference for shallower, more formal ties.

Prosocial Behavior: Actions Intended to Benefit Others

To bolster mutual aid and reciprocity, we must explore pathways to strengthen prosocial behavior (and prosociality).

Prosocial behavior refers to actions intended to benefit others; prosociality refers to the disposition to act prosocially. Prosocial behavior spans altruistic acts done without expectation of return, purely out of concern for others, as well as helping behaviors undertaken for external rewards or to avoid social rejection.

Source: Compiled by the author

Prosocial behavior—rooted in altruistic intent—contributes to forming and maintaining human relationships. Communities with many prosocial actors tend to deepen social ties, and communities rich in ties, in turn, tend to foster more prosocial behavior (内田, 2020). In relation to community life, prosociality is also understood as supporting others inside and outside the community, taking initiative in local governance, and contributing to the community (内田, 2020).

Many studies show that prosocial behavior enhances actors’ well-being. For example, using U.S. survey data on 30,000 individuals, Helliwell et al. (2017) found that those who volunteer report higher happiness.  Moynihan et al. (2015) showed that engaging in work with prosocial motivation and seeing its impact is associated with greater well-being.

In short, prosocial behavior benefits both recipients and actors, making it highly meaningful to cultivate the capacity for such behavior.

Prosocial Motivation and Adolescence

Prosocial motivation can be autonomous (intrinsic) or controlled (extrinsic), and the more controlled the motivation, the lower one’s subjective well-being and self-esteem tend to be.

These differences matter as children enter adolescence—roughly from around age ten—when they begin to re-examine values and norms transmitted by parents as part of socialization (e.g., 大山, 2019). After careful consideration, they internalize values and norms they deem sound and gradually form the self.

Because prosocial behavior reflects social desirability, it too becomes an object of adolescent scrutiny. Cross-national research on the frequency of prosocial behavior shows a period—common worldwide—of decline in early adolescence (山本, 2022). Yamamoto (山本, 2022) argues that prosocial behavior up to late childhood is often carried out under a sense of external control from adults (especially parents); thus, as youths form the self, controlled-motivation prosocial acts decline. He further contends that this decline is a developmentally typical phase during the transition toward autonomous motivation (山本, 2022).

That transition does not happen overnight. Drawing on Eisenberg’s framework, Yamamoto (山本, 2022) classifies developmental changes in prosocial motivation into six stages: (1) Hedonistic/Self-focused Orientation, (2) Needs-of-Others Orientation, (3) Approval/Interpersonal and Stereotyped Orientation, (4) Empathic Orientation, (5) From Empathy to Internalization, and (6) Strongly Internalized Orientation (see table in the original).

Source: Compiled by the author based on Yamamoto (山本, 2022)'s description

This schema suggests a shift from self-centered motives to other-regarding motives, and then toward internalized values. Most adolescents are in stage (3) or (4)—motivated by social approval or empathy. Ito (伊藤, 2012) similarly finds that the emergence of prosocial behavior evolves from being influenced only by values to being influenced by values plus a sense of efficacy (“I can act prosocially”), consistent with this view.

The Importance of Social Approval for Prosocial Acts

Given these adolescent characteristics, environments where prosocial behavior is recognized and approved are crucial. Tashjian et al. (2021) surveyed youth (mean age 16) and found that adolescents embedded in peer groups that value prosocial acts receive positive feedback and thereby gain psychological rewards. By contrast, those whose prosocial behavior goes unrecognized showed no link between prosociality and well-being (Tashjian et al., 2021). Peer evaluation and approval thus become motives for further prosocial action. Ozeki et al.(尾関ら, 2008) also show that seeing adults cooperate more often in the community boosts adolescents’ prosociality.

Implications from Parenting-Style Research

Research on parenting style and children’s prosocial motivation suggests that when prosocial values are presented dialogically—listening carefully to the child’s voice—internalization advances.

In a questionnaire study of 610 adolescents (16–18), Karmakar (2017) found that under authoritative parenting—combining warmth/care and development-appropriate demands—children are more likely to act prosocially from intrinsic motivation. Conversely, under authoritarian parenting—little warmth/care, many prohibitions and directives driven by parental convenience—prosocial acts tend to stem from extrinsic motivation (Karmakar, 2017). According to Karmakar, authoritative parenting fosters a sense of safety through gentle discipline and mutually responsive parent–child relations, enabling youth to internalize conscience-driven behavior.

In sum, cultivating prosocial behavior is aided by environments that value and recognize such acts and by two-way relationships in which prosocial values are presented dialogically.

Source: Compiled by the author

Schools are strong candidates for providing such environments. Yodo (要藤, 2019) shows that those who spent childhood in families and communities rich in social capital tend, even after moving to low-social-capital areas, to retain higher reciprocity and a stronger sense of sharing community resources. Thus, even experiences within the bounded space of a school can positively shape students’ sense of reciprocity—and, by extension, prosocial behavior.

The Promise of “Ethical Learning Communities”

In the United States, the concept of “ethical learning communities” has been articulated—aiming to integrate excellence (cognitive development) and goodness (moral maturity) in schools (リコーナ&デイビッドソン, 2012). Ethical learning communities bring together teachers, students, parents, and local society to make the school the best it can be.

According to Ricona and Davidson (リコーナ&デイビッドソン, 2012), schools that embody such communities practice six principles:

1. Shared Purpose and Identity: Make the pursuit of excellence and goodness the foundation of the school’s mission, identity, and sense of belonging.

2. Link Practices to Outcomes and Research: Examine how existing practices connect to the integration of performance character and moral character.

3. Speak Up and Show Up: Create a democratic community that engages as many as possible in pursuing excellence and goodness; encourage teachers, students, and parents to speak honestly and act with courage.

4. Personal Responsibility for Ongoing Growth: Regard oneself as a work in progress and strive to do one’s best.

5. Collective Responsibility for Excellence and Goodness: Show enough care to help others be their best; incorporate a norm of carefrontation (communicating what needs to be said—even in conflict—while caring for the person).

6. Tackle Hard Problems: Address issues—often overlooked inside and outside school—that affect excellence and goodness.

Source: Compiled by the author

For prosocial behavior, (1) shared purpose, (3) speak up and show up, and (5) collective responsibility are especially relevant. Adopting prosocial development as a shared purpose communicates, school-wide, that prosocial action is valued. Encouraging students to voice and act on matters that affect them, and to co-create their community through two-way interaction, fosters ownership. Practicing (5)—helping others be their best—promotes concrete prosocial acts, mutual recognition, and psychological rewards for actors. Such rewards are known to catalyze subsequent prosocial behavior and are key to internalizing the value of prosociality.

Thus, ethical learning communities provide a conducive environment for students to internalize prosocial behavior.

Points to Note When Introducing Ethical Learning Communities in Japan

Because this concept is U.S.-origin—rooted in American culture and thought—several caveats arise when applying it in Japan.

First, to take collective responsibility for excellence, Ricona and Davidson (リコーナ&デイビッドソン, 2012) recommend naming concerns to a friend with care and clarity. In Japan, directly confronting peers can pose a high psychological hurdle. We may need alternative approaches suited to a group-oriented culture for prompting mutual awareness.

Second, while ethical learning communities call for best efforts toward excellence and goodness, that is a goal, not an immediate requirement for every student. Some students—due to family context and other factors—lack a sense of psychological safety; for them, the priority is to secure safety and belonging. A multi-tiered approach is essential.

Third, realizing an ethical learning community requires treating school staff in the same spirit as students: provide voice in their work and lives, build collegiality that esteems mutual aid, and recognize such conduct. This aligns with key challenges in Japan’s ongoing work-style reforms for teachers.

If these hurdles can be overcome, ethical learning communities merit serious consideration in Japan as well.

(Published with additions and revisions in the November 2024 issue of "EN-ICHI FORUM")

References

• 伊藤順子(2012)「向社会性と動機づけ：関係論的・発達的視点からの提案」『名古屋大学大学院教育発達科学研究科紀要. 心理発達科学』59、pp.29-34.
• 内田由紀子（2020）『これからの幸福について―文化的幸福観のすすめ』新曜社.
• 大山泰宏（2019）『思春期・青年期の心理臨床』放送大学教育振興会.
• 尾関美喜、朴賢晶、中島誠、吉澤寛之、原田知佳、吉田俊和（2008）「社会環境が子どもの向社会的行動に及ぼす影響」『名古屋大学大学院教育発達科学研究科紀要. 心理発達科学』55、pp.47-55.
• 山本琢俟(2022)「向社会的行動の発達的変化に対する 向社会的動機づけからの説明の試み―児童期後期から青年期初期を対象に―」博士論文、早稲田大学.
• 要藤正任(2019)「まちづくり・地域づくりとソーシャル・キャピタル」国土交通政策研究所政策課題勉強会資料.
• リコーナ,トーマス、デイビッドソン,マシュー著、柳沼良太監訳（2012）『優秀で善良な学校―新しい人格教育の手引き』慶応義塾大学出版
• Helliwell, J. F., Aknin, L. B., Shiplett, H., Huang, H. and Wang, S. (2017) Social capital and prosocial behaviour as sources of well-being. NBER Working paper No.23761. National Bureau of Economic Research.
• Karmakar, R. (2017) The impact of perception of consistency and inconsistency in parenting style on pro-social motives of adolescents. Social psychology and society, 8(2), pp.101-115.
• Moynihan, D. P., DeLeire, T. and Enami, K. (2015) A life worth living: evidence on the relationship between prosocial values and happiness. The American review of public administration, 45(3), pp.311-326.
• Tashjian, S. M., Rahal, D., Karan, M., Eisenberger, N., Galván, A., Cole, S. W. and Fuligni, A. J. (2021) Evidence from a randomized controlled trial that altruism moderates the effect of prosocial acts on adolescent well-being. Journal of youth and adolescence, 50(1), pp.29-43.

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