Building Social Capital for Community Revitalization

The concept of “social capital” is now widely used across sociology and beyond. Here, we focus on building social capital from the perspective of community revitalization.

• What Is Social Capital?
• What Is Generalized Reciprocity?
• How Do We Build Social Capital?
• Religion and Social Capital
• What Kind of Social Capital Should We Aim For?

What Is Social Capital?

In recent years, the concept of social capital has become ubiquitous. One of the most prominent scholars is Harvard political scientist Robert D. Putnam, who defines social capital as “connections among individuals—social networks and the norms of reciprocity and trustworthiness that arise from them” (パットナム, 2006, P.14).

Although “social capital” is sometimes rendered literally as 「社会資本」 in Japanese, we use 「社会関係資本」 to stress that it refers not to physical capital but to social networks.

Applied to a community, building social capital fosters cooperation and helps “most things go well”: public safety, disaster preparedness, social welfare, and other functions the community needs are expected to run more smoothly.

Source: Compiled by the author

Today, as community-based welfare becomes central to social welfare, strengthening it requires community-building first—and community-building, in turn, requires building social capital at the local level. This approach is thought to apply to most community-revitalization efforts, whether in cities or rural areas.

What Is Generalized Reciprocity?

A key term in social capital is reciprocity—the sense of we take care of one another. What might sound old-fashioned in the proverb “One good turn deserves another” captures the idea well. Putnam calls this generalized reciprocity: the belief that if you help neighbors in need, you too will be helped in time.

Recent social-capital research is largely empirical. Scholars devise indicators to quantify and visualize social capital. Practices once criticized as “patriarchal,” such as traditional mutual aid, have been re-evaluated on evidence-based grounds.

Earlier views—especially in the Chicago School tradition—that urbanization destroys urban community have been revised; Barry Wellman’s “community saved” perspective, which argues that urban communities can be maintained in new forms, has gained support.

How Do We Build Social Capital?

So how can social capital actually be built? While continued research on measuring social networks is important, the more urgent issue for regional and local revitalization is how to build social capital on the ground.

One focus of attention is the role of religion. Putnam notes that “faith communities in which people worship together … are the single most important repository of social capital in America” ( パットナム, 2006, p.73 ; author’s note: referring to Christian churches and related organizations). 

He also describes the ethos behind generalized reciprocity: I do this for you now without expecting anything in return right away—and perhaps without even knowing who you are—trusting that you or someone else will repay the favor someday (パットナム, 2006, p.73).

A decade after Bowling Alone, Putnam co-authored "American Grace: How Religion Divides and Unites Us"—a work that gets to the very core of American social capital (『アメリカの恩寵――宗教は社会をいかに分かち、結びつけるのか』). In Western society, vigorous practice across diverse Christian denominations—while generally not excluding diversity—has, he argues, been a source of America’s rich social capital.

Religion and Social Capital

That said, this does not mean a simple return to the past. Communities grounded in religious identity can generate powerful solidarity, but also side effects. In classic sociological theories of community, strong internal cohesion can go hand-in-hand with exclusion of outsiders—what Max Weber called the community’s “double ethic” (『経済史』下巻/ General Economic History). Putnam likewise raises this dark side of social capital: a group can be endlessly tolerant toward insiders while becoming hostile toward those outside it.

What Kind of Social Capital Should We Aim For?

How, then, can we build community social capital that avoids exclusivity while strengthening bonds? Putnam argues that revitalizing civic participation—which has declined in the United States—is key. The same question applies to Japan: although governments have repeatedly emphasized “citizen participation,” it often remains purely formal. How should we change that?

The goal should be a balanced mix of bonding social capital (tight ties within groups) and bridging social capital (ties across groups)—the two types that Putnam highlights.

Source: Compiled by the author

The challenge in Japan is to cultivate social capital that is cohesive yet outward-looking, avoiding exclusion while staying open to the outside. The key may lie in developing a distinctly Japan-style social capital, and it overlaps with the question—central to recent discussions of local governance—of who coordinates among government, NPOs, businesses, and citizens (to which, the author would add, schools).

(Published with additions and revisions in the February 2024 issue of "EN-ICHI FORUM")

References

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